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The packaging sector is an important global industry, representing about 2% of the Gross National Product (GNP) of the developed countries. The value of the packaging industry is about 345 million euros worldwide, of which Europe represents a third. Fifty per cent of this market is packaging for food. Forecasts suggest that the sector will continue to grow in size and importance.
Many cooking and preservation processes still largely depend on effective packaging, for example canning, aseptic, sous vide and baking processes. Processes such as drying and freezing would be lost without protective packaging after processing to control product exposure to the effects of oxygen, light, water vapour, bacterial and other contaminants. However, modern food packaging no longer has just a passive role in protecting and marketing the product. It increasingly has an active role in processing, preservation and in retaining the safety and quality of foods throughout the distribution chain.
Indeed, packaging development has changed the preservation methods used for food products. Ten to fifteen years ago all poultry products or industrially prepared raw minced meat were sold as frozen. Nowadays, thanks to modified atmosphere packaging based on protective gases and novel gas-impermeable packaging materials, they are mainly sold as chilled products. The modern preparation and often international distribution of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables for retail sale is also possible today because of respirable packaging films.
Nowadays packaging plays an increasingly important role in the whole food chain ‘from the field to the consumer’s table’. As an example, many fresh agricultural products such as berries and mushrooms are picked in the field or the greenhouse directly into consumer packages and plastic or fibre-based trays.
The product is thus touched only once before it reaches the consumer. Another example is ready-to-eat food and snack products which are packed in microwaveable trays which allow consumers to prepare the food immediately and even serve as an eating dish.
Food packaging has developed strongly during recent years, mainly due to increased demands on product safety, shelf-life extension, cost-efficiency, environmental issues, and consumer convenience. In order to improve the performance of packaging in meeting these varied demands, innovative modified- and controlled-atmosphere packaging, and active and intelligent packaging systems are being developed, tested and optimised in laboratories around the world. All these novel packaging technologies have great commercial potential to ensure the quality and safety of food with fewer or no additives and preservatives, thus reducing food wastage, food poisoning and allergic reactions. Intelligent packaging can also monitor product quality and trace a product’s history through the critical points in the food supply chain. An intelligent product quality control system thus enables more efficient production, higher product quality and a reduced number of complaints from retailers and consumers. Intelligent packaging will also give the food industry the means to carry out in-house quality control required by food regulators.
This book covers selected trends and development in food packaging technologies and materials aiming at assuring the safety and quality of foodstuffs. In today’s competitive market optimal packages are a major advantage when persuading consumers to buy a certain brand. Packaging has to satisfy various requirements effectively and economically. The food manufacturer’s objective is to design an optimised package which satisfies all legislative, marketing and functional requirements sufficiently, and fulfills environmental, cost and consumer demands as well as possible.
I hope that the book will be interesting to readers, and reach a wide market amongst those working in research, industry or government, i.e., all those people who should know new trends in food packaging and the possibilities they raise to improve product safety and quality. In editing this book I would like to thank all the contributors, many of whom I have known for several years. I appreciate their willingness to share their expert knowledge and working within a tight schedule. I also want to thank my colleagues at VTT Biotechnology for many years of valuable cooperation and discussion and for helping to build such a positive and creative environment.
Contributor contact details
1 Introduction. R. Ahvenainen, VTT Biotechnology, Finland
Part I Types and roles of active and intelligent packaging
2 Active and intelligent packaging: an introduction. R. Ahvenainen, VTT Biotechnology, Finland
Introduction: the role of packaging in the food chain
Active packaging techniques
Intelligent packaging techniques
Current use of novel packaging techniques
Current research
The legislative context
Consumers and novel packaging
Future trends
Sources of further information and advice
References
3 Oxygen, ethylene and other scavengers. L. Vermeiren, L. Heirlings, F. Devlieghere and J. Debevere, Ghent University, Belgium
Introduction
Oxygen scavenging technology
Selecting the right type of oxygen scavenger
Ethylene scavenging technology
Carbon dioxide and other scavengers
Future trends
References
4 Antimicrobial food packaging. J.H. Han, The University of Manitoba, Canada
Introduction
Antimicrobial agents
Constructing an antimicrobial packaging system
Factors affecting the effectiveness of antimicrobial packaging
Conclusion
References
5 Non-migratory bioactive polymers (NMBP) in food packaging. M. D. Steven and J. H. Hotchkiss, Cornell University, USA
Introduction
Advantages of NMBP
Current limitations
Inherently bioactive synthetic polymers: types and applications
Polymers with immobilised bioactive compounds
Applications of polymers with immobilised bioactive compounds
Future trends
References
6 Time-temperature indicators (TTIs). P. S. Taoukis, National Technical University of Athens, Greece and T. P. Labuza, University of Minnesota, USA
Introduction
Defining and classifying TTIs
Requirements for TTIs
The development of TTIs
Current TTI systems
Maximising the effectiveness of TTIs
Using TTIs to monitor shelf-life during distribution
Using TTIs to optimise distribution and stock rotation
Future trends
References
7 The use of freshness indicators in packaging. M. Smolander, VTT Biotechnology, Finland
Introduction
Compounds indicating the quality of packaged food products
Freshness indicators
Pathogen indicators
Other methods for spoilage detection
Future trends
References
8 Packaging-flavour interactions. J. P. H. Linssen, R. W. G. van Willige and M. Dekker, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Introduction
Factors affecting flavour absorption
The role of the food matrix
The role of differing packaging materials
Flavour modification and sensory quality
Case study: packaging and lipid oxidation
Modelling flavour absorption
Packaging–flavour interactions and active packaging
References
9 Moisture regulation. T. Powers and W. J. Calvo, Multisorb Technologies, USA
Introduction
Silica gel
Clay
Molecular sieve
Humectant salts
Irreversible adsorption
Planning a moisture defense
Future trends
Part II Developments in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
10 Novel MAP applications for fresh-prepared produce. B. P. F. Day, Food Science Australia
Introduction
Novel MAP gases
Testing novel MAP applications
Applying high O2 MAP
Future trends
References
Acknowledgements
11 MAP, product safety and nutritional quality. F. Devlieghere and J. Debevere, Ghent University, Belgium and M. Gil CEBAS-CSIC, Spain
Introduction
Carbon dioxide as an antimicrobial gas
The microbial safety of MAP: Clostridium botulinum and Listeria monocytogenes
The microbial safety of MAP: Yersinia enterocolitica and Aeromonas spp
The effect of MAP on the nutritional quality of non-respiring food products
The effect of MAP on the nutritional quality of fresh fruits and vegetables: vitamin C and carotenoids
The effect of MAP on the nutritional quality of fresh fruits and vegetables: phenolic compounds and glucosinolates
References
12 Reducing pathogen risks in MAP-prepared produce. D. O’Beirne and G. A. Francis, University of Limerick, Ireland
Introduction
Measuring pathogen risks
Factors affecting pathogen survival
Improving MAP to reduce pathogen risks
Future trends
Sources of further information and advice
References
13 Detecting leaks in modified atmosphere packaging. E. Hurme, VTT Biotechnology, Finland
Introduction
Leakage, product safety and quality
Package leak detection during processing
Package leak indicators during distribution
Future trends
References
14 Combining MAP with other preservation techniques. J. T. Rosnes, M. Sivertsvik and T. Ska°ra, NORCONSERV, Norway
Introduction
Combining MAP with other preservative techniques
Heat treatment and irradiation
Preservatives
Other techniques
Consumer attitudes
Future trends
Sources of further information and advice
References
15 Integrating MAP with new germicidal techniques. J. Lucas, University of Liverpool, UK
Introduction
Ultra violet radiation
Ozone
Integration with MAP
Future trends
References
16 Improving MAP through conceptual models. M. L. A. T. M. Hertog, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium and N. H. Banks, Zespri Innovation Ltd, New Zealand
Introduction
Conceptual models
Mathematical models
Dedicated MAP models
Applying models to improve MAP
The risks and benefits of applying models
Future trends
Sources of further information and advice
References
Part III Novel packaging and particular products
17 Active packaging in practice: meat. C. O. Gill, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Introduction
Control of product appearance
Control of flavour, texture and other characteristics
Delaying microbial spoilage
The effects of temperature on storage life
MAP technology for meat products
Controlled atmosphere packaging for meat products
Future trends in active packaging for raw meats
References
18 Active packaging in practice: fish. M. Sivertsvik, NORCONSERV, Norway
Introduction
The microbiology of fish products
Active packaging: atmosphere modifiers
Active packaging: water control
Active packaging: antimicrobial and antioxidant applications
Active packaging: edible coatings and films
Active packaging: taint removal
Intelligent packaging applications
Future trends
References
19 Active packaging and colour control: the case of meat. M. Jakobsen and G. Bertelsen, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Denmark
Introduction
Packaging and storage factors affecting colour stability
Modelling the impact of MAP
Pre- and post-slaughter factors
Future trends
References
20 Active packaging and colour control: the case of fruit and vegetables. F. Artes Calero, Technical University of Cartagena, Spain and P. A. Gomez, National Institute for Agricultural Technology, Argentina
Introduction
Colour changes and stability in fruit and vegetables
Colour measurement
Processes of colour change
Colour stability and MAP
Combining low oxygen, high carbon dioxide and other gases 429
Future trends
References
Part IV General issues
21 Optimizing packaging. T. Lyijynen, E. Hurme and R. Ahvenainen, VTT Biotechnology, Finland
Introduction
Issues in optimizing packaging
The VTT Precision Packaging Concept
Examples of food packaging optimization
Conclusion: improving decision-making
22 Legislative issues relating to active and intelligent packaging. N. de Kruijf and R. Rijk, TNO Nutrition and Food Research, The Netherlands
Introduction
Initiatives to amend EU legislation: European project
Initiatives to amend EU legislation: Nordic report
Current EU legislation and recommendations for change
Food contact materials
Food additives
Food flavouring
Biocides and pesticides
Food hygiene
Food labelling, weight and volume control
Product safety and waste
References
23 Recycling packaging materials. R. Franz and F. Welle, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, Germany
Introduction
The recyclability of packaging plastics
Improving the recyclability of plastics packaging
Testing the safety and quality of recycled material
Using recycled plastics in packaging
Future trends
Sources of further information and advice
References
24 Green plastics for food packaging. J. J. de Vlieger, TNO Industrial Technology, The Netherlands
Introduction: the problem of plastic packaging waste
The range of biopolymers
Developing novel biodegradable materials
Legislative issues
Current applications
Future trends
References
25 Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution. T. Ja¨rvi-Ka¨a¨ria¨inen, Association of Packaging Technology and Research, Finland
Introduction: the supply chain for perishable foods
The role of packaging in the supply chain
Creating integrated packaging, storage and distribution: alarm systems and TTIs
Traceability: radio frequency identification
Future trends
Sources of further information and advice
References
26 Testing consumer responses to new packaging concepts. L. La¨hteenma¨ ki and A. Arvola, VTT Biotechnology, Finland
Introduction: new packaging techniques and the consumer
Special problems in testing responses to new packaging
Methods for testing consumer responses
Consumer attitudes towards active and intelligent packaging
Consumers and the future of active and intelligent packaging
References
27 MAP performance under dynamic conditions. M. L. A. T. M. Hertog, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
Introduction
MAP performance
Temperature control and risks of MAP
The impact of dynamic temperature conditions on MAP performance
Maximising MAP performance
Future trends
References
Index